Article 5(b) - Authorship: Who wrote the Pentateuch?

Disclaimer – The following article is meant for educational purposes only and not for any commercial purpose.

 

By Emmanuel Gomes

Edited by Fr Trevor D'Souza, OFM

 

Pentateuch refers to the first five books of the Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus and Deuteronomy).

 

In this article we will share various views on the complex question regarding the origin of the Pentateuch. It is important to stress that the purpose of this article is not to settle any debate but to inform the reader of the many viewpoints on the authorship of the Pentateuch.

 

In Jewish and Christian tradition -

The Pentatuech was always considered written by Moses. However, after the coming of scientific biblical studies, 19th century, biblical scholars have abandoned the idea that the Pentateuch was authored by Moses. 

 

Regarding Moses as the principal author of the Pentatuch has been based on the internal evidence. There are various passages in the Bible that refer to Moses being the author. For example, Exodus 17:14, states that Moses wrote down a “memorial” in which the Israelites triumphed Amalekites; Exodus 24:4; 34:27, describes Moses transcribing “the words of the Lord”; Numbers 33:2 and Deuteronomy 31:9, 24-26 (being the most influential text). 

 

Deuteronomy 31:9, 24-26 however does not attribute the whole of Pentateuch to Moses. This passage also describes the liturgical preservation of the scroll of Deuteronomy. Moses gives the scroll to the Levites (priests) to be placed beside the Ark in the Tabernacle, so that it may be handed down to future generations by the authoritative Levitical priesthood.

 

In the Old Testament - 

Outside of the Pentateuch, in Joshua 8:32 and 24:25-26 describes Joshua as the prophetic successor of Moses and inscribing onto tablets the “law of Moses, which he had written.” In 1 Kings 2:3, David admonishes his son Solomon to keep what is “written in the law of Moses” giving a nuance that Moses was the author. Other references in the Old Testament also make similar claims giving credence that Moses was the author of the Pentateuch (see Ezra 3:2; 6:18; Nehemiah 8:1, 14;9:13-18; Leviticus 23; Deuteronomy 16 and 2 Chronicles 25:4; 35:12).

 

In The New Testament - 

Jesus ties portions of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Deuteronomy to the figure of Moses, which also tends the reader to believe that the Pentateuch may have been written by Moses. 

John 7:23; cf. Genesis 17:1-14, 

Mark 7:10; cf. Exodus 20:12; 21:17

Matthew 8:4; Mark 1:44; cf. Leviticus 14:2

Matthew 19:7; Mark 10:3-4; cf. Deuteronomy 24:1-4

 

The most influential text of all is mentioned in John 5:46-47. Here Jesus speaks of Moses “writing” about him in the Torah, and also makes belief in the writings of Moses a precondition for belief in him. This passage is alluding to the Messianic prophecies in Jewish tradition (Genesis 3:15; 22:18; 49:10; Deuteronomy 18:15). The teaching of Jesus in the Gospel links  four out of the five books of the Pentateuch to Moses – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus and Deuteronomy. Only exception being Numbers.

 

Ancient Jewish and Patristic (Early Fathers of the Church) tradition - 

In the first century A.D, the Jewish historian Josephus, asserted that Moses even wrote the account of his own death at the end of Pentateuch. 

Some ancient Jewish authors (Rabbis), third-fifth centuries A.D., unlike Josephus, admitted that the Pentateuch does contain some events which happened after the death of Moses. Hence Moses could not be the author of these events. St Jerome (Early Father of the Church) was also of the same opinion and even suggested that the priest Ezra may have edited the books, hundreds of years after the time of Moses.

 

Documentary Hypothesis by Julius Wellhausen - 

The Documentary Hypothesis, proposed by Biblical Scholar, Julius Wellhausen in the late 19th century, suggests that the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Bible) is not the work of a single author but a compilation of multiple sources written over time. He went on to identify four distinct authors (or schools of authors) and called them: J = Yahwist; E = Elohist, D = Deuteronomist and P  = Priestly. This hypothesis was suggested based on textual clues found within the Bible. 

 

For instance:

 

1. In Genesis, we find God being addressed by different names, such as, “YHWH” and “Elohim.” Biblical scholars found that these different names were not coming from a single author but distinct sources, suggesting multiple authorship (see the table below for more information).
2. In Exodus, there are variations in the presentation of the Ten Commandments, suggesting multiple authorship (see the table below for more information).
3. We find duplications, such as two creation narratives in Genesis 1 and 2. It seems incompatible that one single author will write two different accounts of the same event.
4. We find repetitions in the explanations given in Numbers 20:12 and Deuteronomy 1:37. Could one author repeat himself in his narrative.
5. There are also theological differences which show a conflict between two or more authors. For example, the anthropomorphic depiction of YHWH in Genesis 2-3 (J) is thought to conflict with the transcendent depiction of Elohim in Genesis 1. 

 

The Distinction between J, E, D, and P - 

According to Biblical Scholars, the writings in the books of Pentateuchal can be divided into four main strands:

 

J (Yahwist): This source uses Yahweh as the name of God and is characterised by vivid and anthropomorphic descriptions of God's interactions with humans.

 

E (Elohist): This source refers to God as Elohim and is focused on prophetic elements and dreams.

 

D (Deuteronomist): This source is associated with the book of Deuteronomy, emphasising laws, ethics, and covenant.

 

P (Priestly): This source emphasises genealogies, rituals, and priestly matters.

 

This approach to understanding the writings in the Pentateuch became acceptable among scholars as they were able to explain the apparent inconsistencies and repetitions in the Pentateuch. It provided a coherent framework for understanding the complex composition of these biblical books, leading to a deeper comprehension of their historical development. 

 

There were some sociological reasons for its success as well – at the end of the 19th century due to the influence of philosopher Georg W. F. Hegel (1770-1831) and the naturalist Charles Darwin (1809-1882) – the scholars started to view all of reality from an evolutionary perspective. Wellhausen’s hypothesis presented a coherent and scientific account of the evolutionary development of the Israelite religion from the simple personal faith of Abraham by (J), to more formal distant God of Elohist (E), to Deuteronomy’s stringent imposition of law and covenant categories (D), to the immense complexity of the rituals, regulations and liturgical nature of the Priestly source (P).

 

Traditional - Historical School -

The traditional - historical school includes influential scholars such as Herman Gunkel, Martin Noth, Gerhard von Rad, and Rolf Rendtorff. These scholars focused on understanding the historical context and traditional origins of the biblical texts, providing insights into the cultural and theological aspects of the Pentateuch. 

 

Rendtorff suggested that the Pentateuch was ultimately unified by two redactions (process of editing) – the  Deuteronomistic redaction, that added the book of Deuteronomy and Priestly redaction, that produced the final form of the text. He suggested that the pivotal events were collected independently of one another and joined together by editors in a later stage in Israel’s history to form the Pentateuch.

 

Jewish and Israeli Scholarship on Pentateuch -

Two major movements emerged within Jewish and Israeli scholarship on the Pentateuch.

1. The Kaufmann School: Led by Yehezkel Kaufmann, this school emphasised the uniqueness and spiritual significance of the Pentateuch, viewing it as a product of divine inspiration rather than mere human compilation. Unlike Wellhausen, he did not seek purely natural and evolutionary explanations. For Kaufmann, Israelite monotheistic religion was simply a novum, an innovation (not a development) that was part of the identity of the people of Israel from the beginning of their existence as an identifiable nation. He accepted three sources in the Pentateuch (JE, P, D). He dated P much earlier than D.
2. The Literary Critical School: Represented by scholars like Moshe Greenberg and Nahum Sarna, this approach explored the literary aspects of the Pentateuch, examining its narrative structure, style, and themes. Great Jewish archaeologist - Cyrus Gordon, defended the literary unity of the Pentateuch by appealing to a broader range of ancient Near Eastern documents, from Homer’s Iliad to the Code of Hammurabi. These ancient documents exhibit literary features similar to the Pentateuch. 
3. The "American" or "Albright" School: The American School of biblical scholarship, associated with William Foxwell Albright, focused on archaeological discoveries to support the historical accuracy of certain biblical events and narratives. His scholarly efforts in archaeology in the land of Israel lead him to feel that many of his discoveries, as well as of his colleagues, served to confirm the substantial historicity of the biblical narratives. 

Albright never took issue with Wellhausen’s hypothesis per se. He held the opinion that the essential contents of the different sources were handed down generations after generations before being committed to writing and were historically reliable in their broad outlines, starting with the call of Abraham (Genesis 12). Albright’s approach greatly softened the impact of Documentary Hypothesis on Jewish and Christian faiths - as Wellhausen dismissed any connection with reality behind the Pentateuchal narratives.  Albright's prominent students, such as Frank Moore Cross and David Noel Freedman, continued to contribute to this field.

 

There is a lack of consensus on the precise date of the Pentateuchal sources. Scholars have been disputing the dates, events and other content from an array of religious and theological backgrounds.

 

View of the Catholic Church and the Origins of the Pentateuch - 

There were two responses by the Catholic church regarding the authorship of Pentateuch. First, the 1906 response of the Pontifical Biblical Commission, second, the remarks of then Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger in his 2002 address to the Pontifical Biblical Commission.

 

The Pontifical Biblical Commission and the Pentateuch 1906 – 

It affirmed Mosaic authorship of Pentateuch, based on several reasons:

•  “The many statements…in both Testaments taken together”;

• “The persistent consensus of the Jewish people”;

•  “The constant tradition of the Church”;

•  “The internal evidence coming from the text itself”

 

The commission stated that upholding “the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch” does not require that “everything in it was written by Moses with his own hand or dictated to secretaries.” Instead the commission granted that:  “Moses made use of sources in producing his work, namely written documents or oral traditions from which he took some things and inserted them in the work, either word for word or substantially, abridged or amplified, as suited his special purpose and under the influence of divine inspiration.”

 

Finally, the commission even allowed that “in the long course of centuries a number of modifications happened to it [the Pentateuch].” Like St Jerome before it, it did not see the clear evidence for post-Mosaic material in the final form of the Pentateuch as a problem for following the Jewish and Christian tradition.

Conclusion -

As should be clear from what we have read thus far, the vast majority of biblical scholars, including Catholic scholars, did not come to the same conclusion as the Pontifical Biblical Commission. Instead, Documentary Hypothesis came to be widely (if not universally) held as the more plausible explanation for the origins of the Pentateuch.

 

Cardinal Ratzinger, in his address to the Pontifical Biblical Commission in 2002 asserted that “there will always be room for discussion” and stresses that certain questions often remain open, “What we have learned in the meantime, moreover, is that many questions in their particulars must remain open-ended and be entrusted to a conscious interpretation of their responsibilities.”

 

This “open-ended” approach reflects the current state of the question on the part of the Magisterium of the Church.

Reference -

1. The Origins of the Pentateuch? (Chapter 4) from A Catholic Introduction to the Bible: The Old Testament by John Bergsma and Brant Pitre

2.The Pontifical Biblical Commission